greatlyconcernedaboutthefateofChina.HisprogrammewascalledtheThreePrinciples(San
minchui). These werenationalism – this meant overthrowing the Manchu who were seen as a foreign
dynasty, as well as other foreign imperialists; democracy or establishing democratic government; and
socialismregulatingcapitalandequalisinglandholdings.
Thesocialandpoliticalsituationcontinuedtobeunstable.On4May1919,anangrydemonstrationwas
heldinBeijingtoprotestagainstthedecisionsofthepost-warpeaceconference.Despitebeinganallyof
thevictorioussideledbyBritain,Chinadidnotgetbacktheterritoriesseizedfromit.Theprotestbecame
a movement. It galvanised a whole generation to attack tradition and to call for saving China through
modernscience,democracyandnationalism.Revolutionariescalledfordrivingouttheforeigners,who
were controlling the country’s resources, to remove inequalities and reduce poverty. They advocated
reforms such as the use of simple language in writing, abolishing the practice of foot-binding and the
subordination of women, equality in marriage, and economic development to end poverty. After the
republican revolution the country entered a period of turmoil. TheGuomindang (theNational People’s
Party)andtheCCPemergedasmajorforcesstrivingtounitethecountryandbringstability.
SunYat-sen’sideasbecamethebasisofthepoliticalphilosophyoftheGuomindang.Theyidentifiedthe
‘fourgreatneeds’asclothing,food,housingandtransportation.AfterthedeathofSun,ChiangKai-shek
(1887-1975)emergedastheleaderoftheGuomindangashelaunchedamilitarycampaigntocontrolthe
‘warlords’,regionalleaderswhohadusurpedauthority,andtoeliminatethecommunists.Headvocateda
secularandrational‘this-worldly’Confucianism,butalsosoughttomilitarisethenation.Thepeople,he
said,mustdevelopa‘habitandinstinctforunifiedbehaviour’.Heencouragedwomentocultivatethefour
virtuesof‘chastity,appearance,speechandwork’andrecognisetheirroleasconfinedtothehousehold.
Eventhelengthofhemlineswasprescribed.
TheGuomindang’ssocialbasewasinurbanareas.Industrialgrowthwasslowandlimited.Incitiessuch
as Shanghai, which became the centres of modern growth, by 1919 an industrial working class had
appeared numbering 500,000. Of these, however, only a small percentage were employed in modern
industries such as shipbuilding. Most were ‘petty urbanites’ (xiao shimin), traders and shopkeepers.
Urbanworkers,particularlywomen,earnedverylowwages.Workinghourswerelongandconditionsof
workbad.Asindividualismincreased,therewasagrowingconcernwithwomen’srights,waystobuild
thefamilyanddiscussionsaboutloveandromance.
Socialandculturalchangewashelpedalongbythespreadofschoolsanduniversities(PekingUniversity
wasestablishedin1902).Journalismflourishedreflectingthegrowingattractionofthisnewthinking.The
popularLifeWeekly,editedbyZaoTaofen(1895-1944),isrepresentativeofthisnewtrend.Itintroduced
readerstonewideas,aswellastoleaderssuchasMahatmaGandhiandKemalAtaturk,themodernist
leaderofTurkey.Itscirculationincreasedrapidlyfromjust2,000in1926toamassive200,000copiesin